Testimony of Nellie Woo
__________
Seattle, WA 98118
SIX YEARS AFTER
The Evacuation Through the Eyes of a Nisei Case Worker
Six years after the mass evacuation of the Japanese there are undeniable evidences of changes in their social attitudes which may be attributed to influences exercised upon their lives as residents in War Relocation Camps.
Never before in his life was a Japanese so aware of the broad implications of social welfare. The Wartime Civil Control Administration processed the movement of 110,000 people into temporary assembly centers prior to transfer to more permanent camps located outside of the Western Defense Zone. This agency was largely staffed by experienced social workers. During the past three years that I have been employed in social work, I have met many co-workers who held government jobs and took part in the various phases of the evacuation program. Some said they had a sincere desire to alleviate the suffering but could not as they felt so strongly about the injustice.
From the very first moment of registration through the anxious days of disposition of property and preparations for departure, advice and counsel were needed. The handling of emotional problems incidental to the climactic phases of evacuation, segregation, and relocation demanded the utmost skill of persons versed in social work.
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Social welfare was given a broad concept as indicated by the headline from the newspaper[1] published by the Minidoka War Relocation Project located at Hunt, Idaho. "WELFARE DEPARTMENT TAKES CARE OF HUMAN NEEDS."
"The primary function of the Welfare Office is that of giving service to individuals and families who have problems of various kinds. Included among these are problems of family adjustment, old age, dependency, and delinquency. Some of the more specific responsibilities of the Welfare Office are: arranging transfers between centers; processing repatriation applications; assisting families in making funeral arrangements; handling Red Cross messages and other matters pertaining to the Red Cross; determining eligibility and providing public assistance grants to residents in financial need; determining eligibility for travel grants; assisting families in making applications for rehearings for internal relatives; supplying layettes to expectant mothers; distributing a limited amount of new and used clothing; assisting persons making application for Social Security benefits; and assisting with applications for Railroad Retirement benefits."
This impressive list of functions was allocated for various reasons. Some fell naturally in the area of social welfare while others were assigned to us for want of other suitable departments.
The staff consisted of a counselor and an assistant, both Caucasians, and four Japanese case workers plus secretarial help. The two counselors were young men recently out of Graduate Schools of School Work. On Nisei (second generation) case worker was a recent graduate with a major in Sociology. The other Nisei was an attorney's wife and for this reason had some understanding of human relationships as well as a knowledge of community problems in and around Seattle. The only male caseworker was an older Issei (first generation) who had been in the exporting and important business.
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1. The Minidoka Irrigator. 9-25-1943
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I received my first introduction to social work as a teacher in a private kindergarten for Japanese children. Besides the usual children of preschool and kindergarten age, we took older ones who were unable to go to regular school because of mental or physical handicaps. We had an average enrollment of around one hundred and fifty children and a teaching staff of four Caucasians and two Nisei teachers. I am older Nisei and having visited twice in Japan and being bilingual, made many of the home visits and contacts with parents. Through these contacts with the Japanese community for seven and a half years, I had a case work relationship with many of the families.
The two counselors had brought along their textbooks and course materials and we received intensive training from Social Work Year Books and the Journal of Social Case Work then known as the Family magazine. Case records were kept and the office routine was similar to that of any welfare agency in a normal community.
Because of the abundance of excellent clerical workers and case workers dictated to efficient secretaries. Clerks ushered clients to our desks, delivered mail, and case records and did all of the arithmetical work and the compiling of statistical reports. Case workers had adequate time for study and could concentrate on case work without being burdened by a lot of extraneous clerical duties.
Let us consider some of the functions as stated in the newspaper article. Many and unique were the problems due to the abnormal and adverse living conditions. The living quarters for a family of five consisted of one room approximately 20 by 25 feet. Picture people of mixed ages and sex living day in and day out in such close quarters with absolutely no privacy other than perhaps a blanket temporarily hung between cots. Rooms for couples were only large enough to hold two army cots. Families of seven lived in rooms slightly larger than the size for five. Unattached men and women lived in this size room, dormitory style, six or seven in a group. Six of these
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rooms end to end consisted one barrack. Walls were of thin chalkboard and by speaking close to the wall, a message could be relayed from one unit to the other without ever stepping out of the room. Is it any wonder that people got on each other's nerves and many were the requests to move? Ordinary requests were screened by the Housing Office but complicated situations were referred to our division.
The problems reflected the gamut of human emotions. Some were petty and inconsequential while others had significant social implications. Outright advice was sought of an opinion was desired. Consumate wisdom, tact, and diplomacy were called forth when an elderly man was trying to coax a few priceless soup greens from the parched ground only to be frustrated by the man next door who had acquired a pet duck. A young Nisei was elected beauty queen -- yes, ours was a typical American community -- and became the object of studied persecution on the part of an Issei next door who in her heyday had been quite a beauty. I was summoned by an excited woman and had to hold down her neighbor screaming and writhing in the throes of death until the arrival of the ambulance. She died soon after reaching the hospital.
When we were called out on an emergency we went prepared to meet any situation. A bomb of atomic force fell when soon after the camp opened a Nisei girl and the most eligible Caucasian after a whirlwind courtship, slipped quietly away to Washington where miscegenate marriages were permitted. There was never a dull moment while people lived, loved, and died.
Delinquency among Japanese school children was practically unknown prior to the evacuation. Few crimes were committed serious enough to warrant the attention of the division of Internal Security or police. The head counselor acted as parole officer and the juvenile offenders reported to him at regular intervals. The case workers worked with the parents were exchanged with the school counselors.
High school students were faced with particularly difficult conditions. The physical facilities were most inadequate. Many of the teachers were
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evacuees with no teaching experience. Those of us who had educational qualifications did not see much point in gaining experience since few jobs would be open to us on the outside. A few of the Caucasian teachers were exceptional; some mediocre and others were visionary, utterly impractical and not able to cope with young minds struggling with psychological disintegration. The children did not have the assurance that the high school was accredited and what would happen if they left the camp and entered a regular school? How much effective study was possible at home in a room overflowing with the rest of the family?
School did not seem to important to an adolescent hit by the impact of the burning stigma of race prejudice, humiliation, rejection and the bitter realization that he was a "second-class citizen."[1] The little girl was no longer a child as she folded away the lacy, filmy gown which was to have been her graduation dress. The commencement exercise, the honors for scholarship, the Senior Prom, and all the thrilling activities that she had dreamed about for four long years suddenly became unfulfilled dreams because of a military ruling a month before graduation.
Ten centers were scattered over the country -- Idaho, Utah, Wyoming, Colorado, two camps each in California, Arizona, and Arkansas. Families which were broken up in the process of evacuation, deaths, relocation of young members of families living behind the less able necessitated transfers between centers. Before a move could be authorized many interviews had to be held and social data exchanged as we had to keep in mind the housing shortage and to limit the use of trains to only necessary travel.
Relocation centers were set up for the purpose of relocating people elsewhere who could adjust themselves to life outside. It was obvious that the aged, infirm and those unemployable would need continued care. Before
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1. Eugene V. Rostov. "Our Worst Wartime Mistake"
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relocation could be pushed it was deemed advisable to remove from the centers those who did not wish to follow the American way of life. This process of weeding out was called segregation. "Each person who is to be transferred will be referred to the Welfare Section for an interview as soon as it is determined that he is to be transferred to the Tule Lake Center."[1] This activity not only entailed a lot of desk work, but a tremendous responsibility. The repatriation forms were not only exhaustively detailed, but had to be signed and witnessed in sextuplicate. The community was gripped in a tense emotional strain and for days there was no escape for the case works who processed over 10,000-3,000 of whom were Nisei, who renounced their citizenship under "the pressure of family loyalty, threats from thugs and mass psychosis."[2]
Death took a heavy toll. Life which was difficult for the healthy in body and sound in mind became impossible for many. The Issei case worker was in charge of funeral arrangements. Funerals were held in camp and the body had to be shipped to Ogden, Utah for cremation. Most of the floral pieces were assembled from crepe paper flowers which were stored in our office and used over and over again. They looked surprisingly realistic, especially in photographs.
Temperatures of 115 degrees in summer and 12 degrees below in winter were difficult experiences for those who were used to a mild equable climate. As people unburdened their hearts to us we know that many were the conflicts and deep anxieties.
Death took even those whose lives were full of promise. A husky, strong young man who worked in the next office disappeared during a swimming party. Under his clothes they found a psychological novel which we caseworkers had been reading. It was a depressing study of life also on a barren inhospitable desert of people struggling under a burden of neglect and injustice but they were Indians on a reservation. After two days of
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1. Page 9. "Segregation" Pamphlet by War Relocation Authority.
2. Calem Fisher, "Justice for the Evacuees"
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suspense, his body was recovered from the irrigation canal. An elderly resident in my block tried to forget the loneliness and despair by going into the desert to paint the strange flowers and plants. He was bitten by a tick and died of Rocky Mountain Spotted Fever. The hospital circulated warning handbills and for days we went around plagued by the terrifying details of the man's sufferings. A man went into the sagebrush, to cut some greasewood and became lost in a sudden snow storm and died of exposure. For three days everything was at a standstill while every able-bodied male, even appointed personnel (Caucasians) combed the surrounded wasteland in a search on foot and by plane. During the hectic days just before the camp was being closed, a woman patient in the hospital slipped out in the dark and drowned herself a few blocks away in the icy waters of the canal. She left a husband and four children. The evacuation was such a disintegrating experience that she could not face the uncertainties of relocation.
Strange tasks were taken by case workers. The crematorium delivered the remains to the Welfare Office. Many a time I have carried a small container and the dry rattle of the contents bought a poignant realized of the deep mysteries of life and death. As my eyes swept the illimitable expanse of sky and sand I pondered the utter paltriness of words to offer at such a time. But I need not have felt any concern as I usually found the stoicism of the Issei inviolate, because I was a Nisei, I couldn't help but wonder how the bereaved stood the nights when the wind howled and sobbed as it eddied around the flimsy barracks.
Many, especially people of other races, have been impressed by this trait of the Issei. A doctor who had practiced for 40 years in San Francisco stated that they made admirable patients. After a patient was informed that he faced death from incurable cancer there was "no change in expression or bearing, and no loss of composure."
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1. Charles Miner Cooper. "My Japanese Patients"
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Some of the work we were called on to do we did not relish. I had to act as interpreter for the agents of the Federal Bureau of Investigation and the Naturalization and Immigration Service. These interviews were brusque and harsh in manner and caused embarrassment to the participants.
In order to counteract this unfavorable use of our offices in the line of duty we volunteered to handle Red Cross messages to and from Japan. It was gratifying and touching to see the joy of the Issei who heard from relatives who had survived the war.
Along with this welter of unique services we were called on to perform we had the more prosaic task of determining eligibility and providing public assistance grants. We had the happy experience of planning with those who left he camp as we made clearance for housing and employment as their destination.
Even under the trying conditions of camp, I found a great deal of satisfaction in my work and found peace of mind by helping meet the needs of others. When the relocation to Seattle hits its peak in the fall of 1945, and groups of 500 arrived on special trains, I was on the staff of the King County Welfare Department to greet my former clients.
Six years after the evacuation, I agree with Professor Rostov that "relocation will not be a closed book for many years."[1] Prior to the war, there were 7,000 persons of Japanese ancestry in Seattle. At the present time there are 6,000 of whom 3,500 are Nisei and Sansei (third generation). Many changes are discernable, however, I would not attribute this solely to the evacuation although such an experience is bound to have tremendous effects.
The United States Employment Service reported the most gratifying change. There is much less resistance to the employment of Japanese. There are more power machine jobs available than workers. Two of the largest hotels in Seattle employ Japanese exclusively on their service staffs. More professional and white collar jobs are open. Prior to the evacuation,
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1. "Our Worst Wartime Mistake"
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Most of them patronized their private employment agencies but now avail themselves of a more efficient and wider public service.
The local public welfare department had very few cases in 1942. At the present time there is a case load of about 600. Most of these are old age recipients who became 65 during the war years. The majority are single men without any responsible relatives. For the first time a Nisei woman has applied for an Aid to Dependent Children grant because of divorce. Divorce among Nisei is more common, but this is probably a reflection of the general social trend. "They (Nisei) have gone to American schools and, for the most part, are like any other second-generation American. They like the same clothers, food, comics and movie stars that the rest of the American public like."[1]
The private family welfare agency reports no appreciable increase in its services although a Nisei case worker was temporarily put on staff during the height of the return of the evacuees. This was attributed to the mores of the people who are reticent about discussing their personal difficulties with strangers. The problems are there but away from the setting of the camp they are now brought to ministers, Catholic fathers and Buddhist priests.
There are about 20 on city civil service working mostly as clerks in the health and transit offices and city hall. I was not able to obtain any figures from the federal Civil Service office and the clerk made a most significant remark that such a tabulation was unavailable since no distinction was ever made on racial lines. A major proportion of Nisei especially veterans have government jobs. The appointed personnel of the Relocation camps appreciated their efficient work and induced some to leave with them when they transferred to jobs elsewhere.
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1 Sono Okamura, "The Nisei Discover A Larger America"
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The principal of the junior high school with the largest enrollment of Japanese children was also assistant project director in charge of community management at the camp in Hunt, Idaho. He felt that the children were unaware of any racial conflicts and were making excellent adjustments. He agreed that the evacuation was "Our Worst Wartime Mistake,"[1] but considered as positive features the magnificent display of courage, co-operation, understanding, sacrifice and loyalty on the part of the evacuees.
The principal of the senior high school who had experience with students before and after the evacuation thought there was more mediocrity, and a few instances of insubordination which was unknown prior to 1942. As I have said before, camp experience was particularly demoralizing to the adolescent who had a greater awareness of the social injustice than the very young and lacked the maturity of the adult.
One of the far-reaching effects of social significance of the planned dispersal of the Japanese has been the inevitable intermarriages with other races especially in the Middle West and on the East coast. Away from the West Coast Nisei have found a greater degree of social acceptance and are more able to obtain positions for which they have the educational training and qualifications. Particularly in the field of creative arts they are establishing lucrative and successful careers.
For reasons of accessibility and convenience, many of the business establishments, offices of doctors and attorneys, hotels, groceries and restaurants specializing in Japanese food are concentrated in the area which was little Tokyo before the war. However, in spite of the deterrents of high prices and discrimination homes are being purchased in great numbers in scattered residential districts. Integration into the American way of life is inevitable with the passing of community leadership into the hands of the Nisei.
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1 Eugene V. Rostov
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Six years after the evacuation 3,000 renuniants are looking forward to their biggest Christmas present, restoration of their citizenship. Some measure of the reparation for the $50,000,000 in tangible losses suffered by the evacuees is still a live issue.
Six years ago I was overwhelmed with resentment over the military decree which separated me from my Chinese husband and banished me with two small children to exile in a barren desert. I did attain peace of mind and the loneliness and sense of deprivation were replaced by the joy to be found in service and richness of spiritual abundance. The weird howl of the coyotes shattering the stillness of the desert nights, the fragrance of sage after rain, and the swift rolling of tumbleweeds are becoming memories.
After three years in a public welfare agency I am today a student in a graduate school of Social Work on a scholarship from government funds. This was no special dispensation but a right to apply based on citizenship without regard to race or creed. The government gave me intensive case work experience without my asking and now I am gratefully accepting further training with hopes to carry social work to a wider field.
END
[Signed]
Nellie Woo